Timelapse of a Flowering Phalaenopsis Hybrid Orchid

This is for all those who've said, "but plants are so boring! They don't do anything!"

When I noticed Suzel, my pet Phalaenopsis hybrid orchid, was starting to bud I was so excited for the blossoms. It also presented me with an opportunity to share some of the remarkable and dramatic changes of form that plants can undergo during their life cycles (this one being a reproductive stage). Orchids in particular are unique as their blooms are quite specialized and extremely diverse in form and functions. 
  
The Orchidaceae is the largest family of flowering plants on Earth, encompassing 8% of all vascular plants (1). The family contains 25,000 species (1,2). There are so many incredible topics in relation to orchids such as mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis (or potentially parasitism! We still don't know which one it is or if it is determined on a species by species basis!), pollinator specialization, reproduction strategies, epiphyte coping strategies for difficult environments, folklore, traditional medicine and spices, bioprospecting, propagation in captivity, ecosystem restoration and protection... the list goes on. 

While I could continue to talk about all these glorious features of orchids, I simply want to foreshadow another post I'm working on about native bee species while also sharing the joy of finally getting the right conditions for this orchid to bloom. As you watch, consider a few things: 

1. These flowers are complex structures to serve the simple purpose of attracting pollinators and disseminating/receiving pollen from other plants of the same species. This is in part to increase specialized pollination relationships with a particular species of pollinator to reduce the chance of getting incompatible pollen from a flower of a different species. But it also means that these flowers take a lot of resources and energy to make and then maintain!

2. These flowers are slow to develop. While the video doesn't show the months it took the plant to grow the flower stalk, nor the incredible amount of resources the plant had to stockpile and then use to build these structures and maintain them, the video DOES show the entire floral display taking a full 10 weeks to open fully. Compare and contrast to other species of flowers. How might this be advantageous in terms of pollination? How might this be disadvantageous in terms of pollination? Essentially, what are the trade offs?

3. Observe the complexity of the flower form and consider what parameters a pollinator might have to meet to successfully pollinate said flower? Especially given that most individuals of a species in the wild tend not to clump together, requiring pollinators to seek out these individuals over various ranges. 

4. Consider the environmental variables that help the plant decide when to devote its resources to flowering: temperature, light, water. Given that the climate is changing, these environmental factors may become unstable relative to historic norms. Yet, the individual plants will still have mechanisms regulating flowering processes based on those environmental factors, and will respond to those changing environmental factors and not necessarily in the same way its pollinator species will or won't respond to those same changes. 

I hope you enjoy watching the orchid's transformation from bud to bloom and appreciate the immense work such development takes. I also hope it gets you thinking about the intimate ways in which pollinators and plants interact and depend on each other for survival, and how a changing environment may impact those dynamics. 

References:

(1)  Freudenstein, John V.; van den Berg, Cássio; Goldman, Douglas H.; Kores, Paul J.; Molvray, Mia; Chase, Mark W. 2003. An expanded plastid DNA phylogeny of Orchidaceae and analysis of jackknife branch support strategy. American Journal of Botany vol 91 (1): 149-157.

(2)  Albert, Victor A. And Carretero-Paulet, Lorenzo. 2015. A Genome to Unveil the Mysteries of Orchids. Nature Genetics 47(1): 3-4.

 

Endangered and Threatened Prairie Butterflies (and what you can do to help them)

For those who just want to get some good information about how to plant a butterfly garden, click here

From my prairie garden in August 2015, 4 monarch butterflies feast on Liatris sp. (Blazing Star) nectar

In honor of Earth Week, I wanted to write a post about gardening, specifically butterfly gardening. A big part of gardening is art and attracting beautiful creatures into your landscape. Attracting butterflies is frequently a gardening goal: googling "butterfly garden" returns 8,460,000 results, "attracting butterflies" returns 4,080,000 results, and "saving butterflies" returns 7,670,000 results. For those who use pinterest, typing in "butterfly garden" returns all sorts of tutorial guides about which flowers to plant for which butterflies, ads for buying butterfly houses, and all sorts of butterfly feeders.

Milkweed, not just for Monarch butterflies!

But I'm concerned.

Much of the advice I come across in these articles suggest the use of non-native species to support butterfly populations. In the recent Cheerio's campaign to bring back the bees by giving out free wildflower seed mixes (1), the company supplying the seeds had to defend their mix given that the species were non-native (although not listed as invasive) to many of the areas the mix would be going to (2). It's why I don't trust "wildflower" mixes at the big box stores because they can (A) contain invasive species that threaten the remaining native wild populations, (B) be non-native and thus alter the surrounding community with potentially negative consequences to species that rely on specific plants for food, (C) not do well in my particular climate because those species aren't adapted to my area.

Butterfly feeding on Echinacea sp. (Purple Coneflower)

It's fairly obvious that people want to take action to make their lived environments friendlier to butterflies, but it's hard to figure out the best course of action. Attention has been brought to some threatened species like monarch butterflies and milkweed populations (3,4), but there are many other species of butterflies and skippers that deserve attention. In the remainder of this article, I want to take a closer look at the butterfly species that are  threatened or endangered in Iowa, what they feed upon, and what action Iowan (and other Midwestern) gardeners can do to help support these struggling populations.

The Iowa DNR (Department of Natural Resources) lists two species as endangered: The Dakota Skipper (Hesperia dacotae) and the Ringlet (Coenonympha tullia). However since that report published in 2009, the Powesheik Skipperling (Oarisma powesheik) has been added to the list. In addition to those, the Iowa DNR lists 4 species as threatened and 25 species as animals of special concern (see below for list of species names) (5,6). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which administrates and enforces the Endangered Species Act (which in turn created the Endangered Species List), lists the Dakota Skipper as threatened and the Powesheik Skipperling as endangered as of 2016 (7, 10).

Both the Dakota Skipper and the Powesheik Skipperling rely on high quality prairie to sustain their populations. Given that most of the prairie has been converted by intensive row-crop agriculture and urban expansion, these two species have been hardest hit by habitat loss. Increased pressure from changing fire regimes, droughts, increased wide-spread pesticide use and climate change has further harmed these species (8). As of 2014, the Dakota skipper was found at 35% of its historic sites while the Powesheik Skipperling was found at a mere 5% of its historic sites (8).

From the Minnesota Zoo, a female Dakota Skipper

 The Dakota Skipper feeds on grasses as a larva and nectar as an adult, so including little bluestem and nectar rich flowers is helpful (9). The best thing to do with fields where the Dakota Skipper occurs is to avoid plowing, heavy grazing or mowing in the summer, and herbicide use on nectar bearing plants (9). This should help provide the correct food sources as well as leaving the soil undisturbed, given that the larvae spend time at or near the soil surface (9). Because these skippers don't travel great distances between patches of suitable habitat (<1km) (9), creating corridors of native plants connecting areas in which these skippers currently live may increase their population and help prevent inbreeding. 

Powesheik Skipperling feeding on nectar (Rudbeckia sp?)

 The Powesheik Skipperling is in more dire straits. Considered critically imperiled, this species declined severely and swiftly in the 2000s, the cause of which is still unknown (10, 11). Individuals have not been seen in Iowa since 2008 (10). These skippers may be more sensitive to fire and prefer fen, bog and wet prairie habitats, often only found in virgin prairie. Like the Dakota Skipper, the larvae are herbivorous and the adults feed on nectar (11). However, the Powesheik Skipperling is threatened by an invasive plant, Frangula alnus or glossy buckthorn, which eliminates the skipper's food source of grasses, sedges, and rushes (11).

So what can you do?

It's unlikely that you own land that has prairie remnants that support these populations already, but if you do, FANTASTIC! Keep those remnants alive! Reach out to your local office of U.S. FWS, DNR, or Nature Conservancy to keep up to date on the latest research on managing these endangered habitats.

For those of us who don't live with a prairie remnant, consider volunteering with the Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation to help maintain these natural areas and get a better understanding of the prairie ecosystem and community. Another possibility is the inclusion of native plants within your landscape. There are so many native plants and a growing list of native plant providers that you're sure to find something you'll love. Prairie plants can be unruly, but with careful planning, they can also be rewarding in supporting native insects (like butterflies and bees) and requiring less work and resources in the long term given their evolution with the Midwest's particular climate. Consider setting aside a corner to taller prairie grasses that can provide needed habitat and food for butterflies. But most importantly, stay informed about the local flora and fauna with whom we share this landscape and spread that information with others.

Prairie isn't just grass!

Other butterfly species listed by the Iowa DNR (5,6)
Threatened species
1. Byssus Skipper (Problema byssus)
2. Mulberry Wing (Poanes massasoit)
3. Silvery Blue (Glaucopsyche lygdamus)
4. Baltimore Checkerspot (Euphydryas phaeton)

Animals of Special Concern 
1. Dreamy Duskywing (Erynnis icelus)
2. Sleepy Duskywing (Erynnis brizo)
3. Columbine Duskywing (Erynnis lucilius)
4. Wild Indigo Duskywing (Erynnis baptisiae)
5. Ottoe Skipper (Hesperia ottoe)
6. Leonardus Skipper (Hesperia leonardus)
7. Pawnee Skipper (Hesperia leonardus pawnee)
8. Beardgrass Skipper (Atrytone arogos)
9. Zabulon Skipper (Poanes zabulon)
10. Broad-winged Skipper (Poanes viator)
11. Sedge Skipper (Euphyes dion)
12. Two-spotted Skipper (Euphyes bimacula)
13. Dusted Skipper (Atrytonopsis hianna)
14. Salt-and-pepper Skipper (Amblyscirtes hegon)
15. Pipevine Swallowtail (Battus philenor)
16. Zebra Swallowtail (Eurytides marcellus)
17. Olympia White (Euchloe olympia)
18. Purplish Copper (Lycaena helloides)
19. Acadian Hairstreak (Satyrium acadicum)
20. Edward’s Hairstreak (Satyrium edwardsii)
21. Hickory Hairstreak (Satyrium caryaevorum)
22. Striped Hairstreak (Satyrium liparops)
23. Swamp Metalmark (Calephelis mutica)
24. Regal Fritillary (Speyeria idalia)
25. Baltimore Checkerspot (Euphydryas phaeton ozarkae)

References:
1: http://www.cheerios.com/bringbackthebees
2: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-veseys-seeds-wildflower-mix-questions-gmo-invasive-species-1.4032641
3: http://monarchwatch.org/
4: http://monarchwatch.org/blog/2017/02/11/monarch-population-status-30/
5: http://www.iowadnr.gov/Conservation/Threatened-Endangered
6: https://www.legis.iowa.gov/docs/ACO/rule/571.77.2.pdf
7: https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/reports/species-listed-by-state-report?state=IA&status=listed
8: http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2014/prairie-butterflies-10-23-2014.html
9:http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Hesperia+dacotae
10: https://www.fws.gov/Midwest//Endangered/insects/dask/ButterfliesFinalListQAs22Oct2014.html
11: http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Oarisma+poweshiek

Additional resources:
U.S. FWS profile on the Dakota Skipper: https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?spcode=I011
 U.S. FWS profile on the Powesheik Skipperling: https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?spcode=I0W1

Venus Flytrap Eating a Housefly

Carnivorous plants can be gruesome. As a keeper of one venus flytrap, pet name Lazarus, I'm often asked about the macabre task of feeding her. Ideally, she catches her own food. But sometimes I supplement her diet with rehydrated freeze dried blood worms should the need arise.

Recently, she caught a housefly, the first sign of her return from winter dormancy this spring*! While I didn't catch the trap activating on video, I have compiled a video documenting the digestion process over the course of three weeks. View below!

You may have noticed two things. Some pictures have a purplish cast to them. No, you didn't miss a solar event in which sunlight turned purple. Due to the shorter winter daylight hours and the cold outdoor temperatures, my collection of plants wouldn't be able to get their needed sunshine to thrive based off what can filter in through the window. Instead, I have invested in an LED hydroponic light that emits red and blue light, the two major wavelengths that most plants need to survive and regulate their inner hormonal cycles. The grow light is what is responsible for the disorienting color change.

The ending also took a turn that I wasn't expecting. I had hoped to show the trap reopening, revealing the remaining exoskeleton of the fly morbidly stuck to the walls of the trap. But that's not what happened. Instead, the trap died.

This can happen for a number of reasons. One common reason with hand fed plants is that the amount of food was too much for the leaf to digest, so the leaf gluts itself but then begins to rot. However, I think this leaf died of a different cause, age. The leaf had been growth from the previous season and so was closing on a year in age. Because the activation of the trap takes such enormous amounts of energy, it can be really hard on the plant to repair and otherwise maintain an old trap. In those cases, the trap digests the prey as usual, but when finished, the nutrients stored in the trap are broken down and reallocated to other parts of the plant. This is similar to when trees reallocate nutrients from leaves to their roots in the fall, causing the leaves to die and fall off. If you reexamine the video, you'll find a number of new traps exploding on the rush of nutrients from out of the center of the rosette as the old trap withers away.

Sound off in the comments if you have any other questions about the wonderful and terrifying Dionaea muscipula!

*Fun fact: Venus flytraps are not from the tropics! They are considered temperate plants and are endemic to the bog swamps of the Carolinas, U.S.A. Because of this, they must go through a winter dormancy period to be healthy. They are also unique in that there is only one species in the entire genus and they are very distantly related from other genera, making their phylogeny quite distinct.

References
Since most of this information has accumulated over the years as I've read up on the care of carnivorous plants, it's hard to attribute any one piece of information to a source. I can recommend "Savage Garden" by Peter D'Amato (2013) to anyone looking for a detailed primer on the subject.

Common Mullein at Jacob Krumm Preserve

A hawk circles the savanna on Feb 1, 2017

Recently I headed out to the Jacob Krumm preserve in between Grinnell and Kellogg, Iowa. It's a 450 acres of land that was converted from row crop agriculture into tallgrass prairie and savanna (1). It has 7 miles of trails for outdoor enthusiasts (1).

Along the way, I came across white-tailed deer, hawks, crows, and the standing remains of plants from the previous year. Some still had seed heads attached, but most had blown down to stems, branches, and blades of grass. However, I came across one plant greening up in the abnormally warm winter. I thought perhaps it might have been the skunk cabbage which uses a high metabolism to warm the soil in winter time so that it can leaf out and bloom far earlier than most other plants. Upon researching , I found this not to be true. Instead, I believe I've stumbled upon the early growing rosette of the Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus).

Mystery plant (Common Mullein) close-up. What plant starts growing in February in Iowa?

The mystery plant (V. thapsus) with my hand for scale

V. thapsus is an invasive plant from Europe and Africa that was brought over in the 1700s (3). It's a biennial which means that it grows leaves for one year, winters, and then grows a flower stalk the next year before dying*. It can be used in herbal remedies (2, 3). As always, be careful when making your own concoctions from wild plants. The wrong identification or preparation could lead to lethal poisoning and other serious side effects.

This particular plant was found on the side of a dirt trail, which is not surprising. Most invasives gain a foothold into an area through disturbances such as road building, migrating animals, fires, etc. that leave openings in the native vegetation. Invasive species then out compete native species by reproducing in large quantities, limiting light and other nutrients, or taking up limited habitat space (4).

Because Iowa has been so transformed by human activity, invasive species have lots of opportunity to enter remaining natural spaces. It can be difficult to keep track of which plants are native, non-native, and invasive. Because these natural refuges are important, it's up to all of us to maintain them.

Landscape of the February Prairie at Jacob Krumm Preserve in Grinnell, IA Feb. 1, 2017

Close up of a native grass seed head

*Many biennials don't adhere strictly to a two year schedule, but more like a two stage cycle wherein they could spend years in the rosette stage until the right environmental factors trigger the change to a flower stage, after which the plant dies. There's still a mystery as to why this happens and what exactly triggers the switch. But for the most part, this life cycle takes two years on average.


References:
(1) http://www.mycountyparks.com/County/Jasper/Park/Jacob-Krumm-Nature-Preserve-East.aspx
(2) Swearingen, J., C. Bargeron. 2016 Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States. University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/
(3) http://www.livescience.com/52001-common-mullein-herb-plant-photos.html
(4) https://www.fws.gov/invasives/faq.html#q4

Which uses less water: shower or bath?

Short answer: showers use less water than bathtubs when they are less than 23 minutes long

An everyday habit for most, but how much water is used in that daily shower?

Long Answer: Getting washed up is a frequent task, whether by shower or bath. But haven't you ever wondered how much water each used? And which one used less than the other? I decided to figure this out by finding the standard flow rates for shower heads and the standard capacity for a bath tub, and then graph them against each other.

Because bathtubs come in numerous shapes and sizes, it's hard to pick one particular volume to be "standard" in American households. Here, I use the average rectangular tub that is 60" by 32" by 17" for a capacity of 56 U.S. gallons (1, 2). Once the bath tub is full, it won't change in water consumption (given that more water isn't added) so it follows the equation of:

gallons of water at time, t = 56 (gallons)

The shower head equations for the graph followed the pattern of:

Gallons of water at time, t = Flow rate (in gallons per minute) x time (in minutes)

The EPA implemented a maximum cap on flow rate at 2.5 gpm (gallons per minute) in 1994 (3). Before this limit, the average shower head had a flow rate of 5.5 gpm (3). The 2.5 gpm standard has remained to this day, but an additional program to promote water awareness and conservation, WaterSense, has an even lower maximum rate of 2.0 gpm (4).

WaterSense is an EPA program for water using appliances that is an equivalent to EnergyStar ratings for electrical appliances. This program rates appliances to help consumers reduce their water consumption in their domestic use.

The above graph was generated using the flow rates of different shower heads and the average capacity for a household tub.

Where the lines of shower heads and bath capacity intersect indicate the time at which showers and baths use the same amount of water. Thus, as long as your bathing takes less time than this threshold minute, the shower will use less water than a bath. 

Here are those threshold times:

For a shower head from before 1994, it takes 11 minutes to reach 56 gallons.

For a standard shower head from after 1994, it takes 23 minutes to reach 56 gallons.

For a WaterSense shower head, it takes 28 minutes to reach 56 gallons. 

References:

1.) http://www.rempros.com/dimensions/bathtub_sizes.html

2.) http://homerenovations.about.com/od/bathroomdesign/tp/Bathtub-Size-Reference-Guide.html

3.) https://www.reference.com/home-garden/flow-rate-typical-shower-e92f05eb44450e80

4.) https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/pubs/faq_showerheads.html

Why Do Stores in the U. S. Use Plastic Bags?

Short Answer: Plastic bags became popularized in the early 1980s because plastic was stronger than paper bags while remaining lightweight, durable, and cheap. Currently 100 billion plastic bags are used annually in the U.S.

Plastic bags common for retailers to use.

Long Answer: Plastic shopping bags are ubiquitous. An average family will consume 60 plastic bags over the course of 4 trips to the grocery store (1). Yet, plastic bags are a relatively new invention. The earliest were manufactured in 1950s, but it wasn't until the 1960s that the modern shopping bag was designed by Sten Gustaf Thulin (2). The Swedish engineer developed the simplified design, allowing a single tube of plastic to be folded and processed into a lightweight, durable bag. The patent was registered with Celloplast in 1965, though it was overturned in 1977 when U.S. based petrochemical company Mobil challenged it. The Dixie Bag Company then brought the plastic bag to shopping centers, first Kroger grocery stores in 1982 and then Safeway soon after. With it's high load capacity, it was stronger than the traditional paper bag while remaining lightweight.

Plastic bags negatively impact the environment. They are a large part of litter, resulting in issues ranging from aesthetic displeasure to flooding due to clogged sewers (2). Annually, 10% of plastic produced will end up in an ocean, which harms wildlife by detracting from habitat suitability, strangling animals, and causing gastrointestinal complications when ingested (2, 4). It's estimated that 100,000 sea turtle and other marine wildlife will die each year due to plastic bags (5). Because plastic is extremely durable, it takes a long time to decompose without human intervention (around 1,000 years) (1).

In addition to these negative traits, plastic bags are convenient leading to their continued use. Bags are cheap: retailers spend $4 billion on plastic bags ($4 billion/ 100 billion bags = $0.04/bag) (5). Because many retailers don't charge for the plastic bags, that cost is instead passed on to consumers through raised prices. The Wall Street Journal reported that Target, the second largest retailer in the U. S., consumes 1.8 billion plastic bags annually (5). More generally, plastic bags are used at a rate of 1 million plastic per minute in the U.S. (1). 

Most bags today are made of polyethylene, a product of natural gas and petroleum. Recycling plastic bags can be an issue. Curb based recycling programs, often feeding single stream systems, can't take the bags even though more rigid plastic of the same material is accepted. This is because of the bag's lightweight. Bags can cause issues by jamming machinery or being falsely identified as paper and causing issues with pulp at later steps (2).

While there are some biodegradable bags available, they haven't been widely adopted and don't solve the issues of plastic bags. Biodegradable bags can't decompose in closed landfills, defeating the purpose of using biodegradable bags over plastic. They can also cause issues with current plastic bag recycling programs. If biodegradable bags are mixed in with plastic bags during the recycling process, this can contaminate the product and cause problems with machinery (2).

Plastic bag litter.

 However, five states and the District of Columbia have legislation requiring retailers to have convenient storefront recycling programs for bags in an effort to increase recycling (3). Two states have banned plastic bags altogether: California and Hawaii. California was the first state to ban plastic bags statewide in 2014, but the law was placed on hold until it passed a referendum in November 2016 (3). The law prohibits retailers from using plastic bags and requiring a minimum charge of 10 cents for recycled paper bags (3). Yet a proposition put forth at the same time to put the 10 cent charge into an environmental fund didn't pass (3).

Hawaii has banned plastic bags throughout the state, but did it on a county by county basis. The first counties banned the bags in 2011 with the final county banning bags in 2015 (3, 4). The Hawaii ban also included the ban of paper bags containing less than 40% recycled materials (4).

In contrast, three states have enacted legislation preventing municipalities and counties from enacting plastic bag bans or taxes (3).

“Between 2015 and 2016 at least 77 bills have been proposed by 23 states regarding the regulation of plastic bags in retail settings. Only three states—Arizona, Idaho, and Missouri—have enacted legislation this year, all of which preempt local governments from regulating the sale or use of plastic bags, including the imposition of any fees or taxes” (3)

So what can you as an individual do?

Reusable bags!

1. Stop using plastic bags and opt for using your own reusable bags. Some retailers will give you a discount if you do.
2. Take whatever plastic bags you do have to a recycling center or calling your local waste management facility about whether they'll accept plastic bags into their recycling center.
3. Pick up plastic bag litter when you encounter it outside.
4. Contact your local representatives and ask if measures for banning or taxing plastic bags are
     a) in place
     b) proposed and being voted on
     c) need a champion to introduce into the legislature
  ***Remember: while only 2 states have legislation banning plastic bags statewide, there are many more cities and counties that have their own bag measures curtailing plastic bags. Don't forget your city representatives when you're checking in with your politicians!
5. Encourage your family and friends to reduce their use of plastic bags. This works especially well if you're able to model such behavior for them rather than just tell them.

Sound off in the comments if this sparks more questions!


(1) Statistic Brain. Sept. 4, 2016. (Accessed Jan 3, 2017).

(2) Wikipedia. "Plastic Shopping Bag". (Accessed Jan 3, 2017).

(3) National Conference of State Legislation. "State Plastic and Paper Bag Legislation". (Accessed Jan 3, 2017). 

(4) Carla Herreria, Huffington Post. July 1, 2015. "Hawaii Just Became the First State to Ban Plastic Bags at Grocery Checkouts". (Accessed Jan 3, 2017).

(5) Rensselaer County Legislature. "Plastic Bag Facts" (Accessed Jan 4, 2017).

Generating Ideas

Hello and welcome to the Inquisitive Grasshopper Blog!

I'm excited about starting this blog and am looking forward to answering questions. In the meantime, I have a burning question for you:

Is there some topic or question about waste, water, landscaping, urban wildlife, environmental protections that's been bugging you for a while? Are you burning up to find out what's going on with x, y, or z?

I'd love to hear about it!

Answers will be posted here on the main page, but you can see what questions are already on the list to be investigated and my purpose for the blog on the right. Comment your ideas for topics and questions either here on this post or on "The Questions List" Page (link on the right of this page).

Happy Investigating!

~IG